La industria de la celulosa y sus efectos: certezas e incertidumbres
Palabras clave:
conflicto ambiental, consumo de papel, disruptor endócrino, ecotoxicología, efluentes industriales, eutrofización, proceso kraft, servicios ecosistémicosResumen
El patrón de crecimiento de la industria de la pulpa y del papel, así como del modelo forestal asociado, revela una tendencia creciente a expandirse en países de Asia, África y América del Sur. En este escenario es necesario incorporar la perspectiva ambiental en la conciencia social para que las decisiones de uso y manejo de los recursos naturales no sean tomadas siguiendo sólo la lógica del mercado, por lo cual el concepto de servicios ecosistémicos es una ayuda valiosa para el análisis de los conflictos ambientales. Este artículo analiza las evidencias de los impactos puntuales que producen los efluentes industriales derivados del funcionamiento de las plantas de celulosa. Estos efluentes presentan una considerable complejidad por la cantidad de compuestos químicos que contienen, algunos no identificados al día de hoy. Sus efectos dependen del sitio en el que ocurren, de las características físico-químicas del cuerpo receptor, de su caudal, del tipo de madera, del proceso industrial y del tratamiento de efluentes empleado y de la sensibilidad de las especies presentes en el ecosistema. Sin embargo, existen numerosos estudios ecotoxicológicos y sobre la eutrofización de cuerpos de agua que demuestran que algunos de los potenciales efectos ocurren en regiones diferentes y distantes e independientemente del tipo específico de proceso industrial empleado. Los efectos derivados de la exposición a disruptores endócrinos cuentan con abundantes evidencias de laboratorio y de campo que han permitido establecer sus mecanismos de acción. Además, si bien la incorporación de nuevas fases (e.g., la fase secundaria) a los sistemas de tratamiento de efluentes industriales mitiga los efectos agudos, no mitiga las respuestas crónicas registradas. En función de los efectos conocidos se consideran las posibles consecuencias sobre las funciones ecosistémicas, y cuáles son los principales desafíos de América Latina para planificar esta actividad productiva. Los grados elevados de incertidumbre asociados, el carácter complejo de las respuestas de los sistemas frente a las perturbaciones o al estrés, y los vacíos de información limitan nuestra capacidad para enfrentar los problemas ambientales. El análisis y el aporte académico libre de conflictos de intereses deben contribuir a la toma de decisiones y a que la sociedad construya una opinión fundamentada.
Citas
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CLEMENTE, J; N MAZZEO; J GORGA & M MEERHOFF. 2005. Succession and collapse of macrozoobenthos in a subtropical hypertrophic lake under restoration (Lake Rodó). Aquat. Ecol. 39:455-464.
COAKLEY, J; PV HODSON; A VAN HEININGEN & T CROSS. 2001. MFO induction in fish by filtrates from chlorine dioxide bleaching of wood pulp. Wat. Res. 35:921-928.
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CULP, JM; CL PODEMSKI; KJ CASH & RB LOWELL. 1996. Utility of field-based artificial streams for assessing effluent effects on riverine ecosystems. J. Aquat. Ecosys. Health. 5:117-124.
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EASTON, MDL; GM KRUZYNSKI; II SOLAR & HM DYE. 1997. Genetic toxicity of pulp mill effluent on juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) using flow cytometery. Water Sci. Technol. 35:347-355.
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JENSEN, KM; EA MAKYNEN; MD KAHL & GT ANKLEY. 2006. Effects of the Feedlot Contaminant 17r- Trenbolone on Reproductive Endocrinology of the Fathead Minnow. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40:3112-3117.
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COAKLEY, J; PV HODSON; A VAN HEININGEN & T CROSS. 2001. MFO induction in fish by filtrates from chlorine dioxide bleaching of wood pulp. Wat. Res. 35:921-928.
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EASTON, MDL; GM KRUZYNSKI; II SOLAR & HM DYE. 1997. Genetic toxicity of pulp mill effluent on juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) using flow cytometery. Water Sci. Technol. 35:347-355.
ELLIS, RJ; MR VAN DEN HEUVEL; MA SMITH & N LING. 2005. Effects of maternal versus direct exposure to pulp and paper mill effluent on rainbow trout early life stages. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part A, 68:369-387.
FAO. 2007. FAOSTAT on-line statistical service, Available online at: http://faostat.fao.org.
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FOLKE, C. 2006. Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems analyses. Global Environmental Change 16:253-267.
GLOZIER, NE; JM CULP; KJ CASH; RB BRUA & CS WOOD. 2002. Assessing effects of pulp mill effluent on benthic invertebrates with stream mesocosms on the Saint John River, Edmundston, NB. Proceedings, 29th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop. Whistler, BC. Canada, October 21-23. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2438:2-3.
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GROSS, TS; NJ KERNAGHAN; DS RUESSLER & SE HOLM. 2000. An evaluation of the potential effects of papermill effluents on freshwater mussels. Pp 253-257 en: Proceedings, 4th International Conference on theEnvironmental Impacts of the Pulp and Paper Industry. Ruoppa, M; J Passivirta; KJ Lehtinen & S Ruonala (eds.). Report 417. June 12-15, Helsinki, Finland.
HEWITT, LM; JL PARROTT & ME MCMASTER. 2006. A decade of research on the environmental impacts of pulp and paper mill effluent in Canada: sources and characteristics of bioactive substances. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part B, Critical Reviews, 9(4):341-356.
HEWITT, LM; TG KOVACS; M DUBE; D MACLATCHY; PH MARTEL ET AL. 2008. Altered reproduction in fish exposed to pulp and paper mill effluents: roles of individual compounds and mill operating conditions. Environ. Tox. Chem. 27(3):682-697.
HODSON, PV; S EFLER; JY WILSON; A EL-SHAARAWI; M MAJ ET AL. 1996. Measuring the potency of pulp mill effluents for induction of hepatic mixed function oxygenase activity in fish. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health. 49:101-128.
HUDSON, PJ; AP DOBSON & KD LAFFERTY. 2006. Is a healthy ecosystem one that is rich in parasites? TREE 21(7):381-385.
JENSEN, KM; EA MAKYNEN; MD KAHL & GT ANKLEY. 2006. Effects of the Feedlot Contaminant 17r- Trenbolone on Reproductive Endocrinology of the Fathead Minnow. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40:3112-3117.
JOBBÁGY, EG; MD NOSETTO; CS SANTONI & G BALDI. 2008. El desafío ecohidrológico de las transiciones entre sistemas leñosos y herbáceos en la llanura Chaco-Pampeana. Ecol. Aus. 18:305-322.
KARELS, A & A OIKARI. 2000. Effects of pulp and paper mill effluents on the reproductive and physiological status of perch (Perca fluviatilis) and roach (Rutilus rutilus) during the spawing period. Ann. Zool. Fennici. 37:65-77.
KARELS, A; E MARKKULA & A OIKARI. 2001. Reproductive, biochemical, physiological, y population responses in perch (Perca fluviatilis l.) y roach (Rutilus rutilus l.) downstream of two elemental chlorine-free pulp y paper mills. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 20(7):1517-1527.
KAVLOCK, RJ; GP DASTON; C DEROSA; P FENNER-CRISP; LE GRAY ET AL. 1996. Research needs for the risk assessment of health and environmental effects of endocrine disruptors: A report of the US EPA sponsored workshop. Environ. Health Perspect. 104(4):715-740.
KHAN, RA & SM BILLIARD. 2007. Parasites of winter flounder (Pleuronectes americanus) as an additional bioindicator of stress-related exposure to untreated pulp and paper mill effluent: a 5- year field study. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 52:243-250.
KIPARISSIS, Y; R HUGHES; CD METCALFE; AJ NIIMI & T TERNES. 2000. Potential of the flavonoid, genistein to alter gonadal development in fish. In: Proceedings, 27th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop. October 1-4, 2000, St. John’s, Newfoundland. Penney KC, Coady KA.
KIPARISSIS, Y; R HUGHES; C METCALFE & T TERNES. 2001. Identification of the isoflavonoid genistein in bleached kraft mill effluent. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35:2423-2427.
LIVINGSTON, RJ; AK PRASAD; X NIU & SE MCGLYNN. 2002. Effects of ammonia in pulp mill effluents on estuarine phytoplankton assemblages: field descriptive and experimental results. Aquatic Botany 74:343-367.
LOWELL, RB; LC GRAPENTINE; JC CULP & TB REYNOLDSON. 2001. National assessment of the effects of pulp and paper mills on benthic invertebrate communities: Meta-analyses of the National EEM database (abstr.). Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2379:1-2.
LOWELL, RB; SC RIBEY; IK ELLIS; EL PORTER; JM CULP ET AL. 2003. National assessment of the pulp and paper environmental effects monitoring data. Burlington, Ontario. National Water Research Institute. No. 03-521.
LURLING, M & M SCHEFFER. 2007. Info-disruption: pollution and the transfer of chemical information between organisms. TREE 22(7):374-379.
MACLATCHY, DL & GJ VAN DER KRAAK. 1995. The phytoestrogen b -sitosterol alters the reproductive endocrine status of goldfish. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 134:305-312.
MARTEL, PH; TG KOVACS & RH VOSS. 1996. Effluents from Canadian pulp and paper mills: A recent investigation of their potential to induce mixed function oxygenase activity in fish. Pp. 401-412 en: Environmental Fate and Effects of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents. Servos, MR; KR Munkittrick, JH Carey & GJ Van Der Kraak (eds.). St. Lucie Press. Del Ray Beach, FL, USA.
MARTEL, P; T KOVACS; R VOSS & S MEGRAW. 2003. Evaluation of caged freshwater mussels as an alternative method for environmental effects monitoring (EEM) studies. Environmental pollution 124(3):471-483.
MCMASTER, ME; JL PARROTT & LM HEWITT. 2003. A Decade of Research on the Environmental Impacts of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent in Canada (1992-2002). National Water Research Institute, Burlington, Ontario. NWRI Scientific Assessment Report Series No. 4. 84 Pp.
MCMASTER, ME; LM HEWITT & JL PARROTT. 2006. A decade of research on the environmental impacts of pulp and paper mill effluent in Canada: field studies and echanistic research. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part B, Critical Reviews 9(4):313-339.
MILLENNIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT. 2005. Ecosystems & Human Well-being: Synthesis Report. Island Press (MA, http://www.maweb.org).
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2008-12-01
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Altesor, A., Eguren, G., Mazzeo, N., Panario, D., & Rodríguez, C. (2008). La industria de la celulosa y sus efectos: certezas e incertidumbres. Ecología Austral, 18(3), 291–303. Recuperado a partir de https://ojs.ecologiaaustral.com.ar/index.php/Ecologia_Austral/article/view/1376
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