Búsqueda de patrones en macroecología: la regla de Rapoport
Abstract
The Rapoport effect predicts that the geographic range of species increases with latitude, altitude, and depth. In this paper, I review the literature on the techniques for detecting the pattern, and discuss three analytical aspects that are crucial to test it more rigorously: (1) the detection of methodological artefacts, (2) the application of null models in biogeography, and (3) the application of the phylogenetic comparative method. I use data on the geographic distribution of 100 species of American turtles to show, in practice, the sensitivity of results to different methods of analysis. The study shows the change in methodological approaches that occurred since the mid ’90s and resulted in increasingly complex techniques for the analysis of geographic gradients in the size of the geographic ranges of species. The simultaneous application of several analytical approaches allows to convalídate those tendencies that repeatedly emerge after the application of different techniques whereas suspicion falls on those patterns’ found only when a particular method is applied. At present, the Rapoport effect is not a general, verified rule in nature. Instead, it is a biological hypothesis to be tested as a first step, while trying to elucidate the mechanisms that explain the variations in the size of the geographic ranges of species. In the present paper, I show how the basic ideas that should be taken into account while developing studies in this topic can be introduced into teaching, through the development of a practical exercise which can be put to the test of graduate and post-graduate students.
References
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Blackburn, T. M. y K.J. Gaston. 1996. Spatial patterns in the geographic ranges of bird species in the New World.Philosophical Transactions of the RoyalSociety, London, B351:897-912.
Blackburn, T.M. y K.J. Gaston. 1998.Some methodologicalissuesin macroecology. The American Naturalist 151:68-83.
Brown, J.H. 1995. Macroecology. The University of ChicagoPress, Chicago. 269 pp.
Brown,J. H. yB.A. Maurer.1989. Macroecology:the division offood and space among species on continents. Science 243:1145-1150.
Burt, A. 1989. Comparative methods using phylogenetically independent contrasts. Pp. 33-54. En: Harvey, P.H. y L.Partridge (eds.). Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Cheverud, J., M. Dow y W. Leutenegger. 1985. The quantitative assessment of phylogenetic restraints in comparative analyses:sexual dimorphism in body weight among primates. Evolution 36:914-933.
Colwell, R.K. y G.C. Hurtt. 1994. Nonbiological gradients in species richness and a spurius Rapoport effect. The American Naturalist 144:570-595.
Cowlishaw, G. y J.E. Hacker. 1997. Distribution, diversity, and latitude in African primates. The American Naturalist 150:505-512.
Cowlishaw, G. y J.E. Hacker. 1998. Too much latitude for Rapoport’s-rule? Trendsin Ecol. and Evol. 13:241.
Crowley, P.H. 1992. Resampling methods for computation-intensive data analysis in ecology and evolution. AnnualReview in Ecology andSystematics 23:405-447.
Diamond, J. 1986. Overview: Laboratory experiments, field experiments, and natural experiments. Pp 3-22. En: Diamond, J. y T.J. Case (eds.) Community Ecology. Harper and Row, New York.
Edwards,P.J.,R.M.May yN.R.Webb. 1994.Large-scale ecology and conservation biology.BlackwellScientific Publications, Oxford. 375 pp.
Eggleton, P. y R. Vane-Wright. 1994. Phylogenetics and ecology. The Linnean Society simposium Series, Number 17. AcademicPress, London. 376 pp.
Felsenstein,J. 1985.Phylogenies and the comparative method. The American Naturalist 125:1-15.
France,R. 1992.TheNorthAmerican latitudinal gradientin speciesrichness and geographicalrange offreshwater crayfish and amphipods. The American Naturalist 139:342-354.
Garland,T.Jr.,P.H.Harvey yA.R.Ives. 1992.Proceduresforthe analysis of comparative data using independent contrasts.Systematic Biology 41:18-32.
Gaston, K.J. 1991. How large is a species’ geographic range? Oikos 61:434-438.
Gaston, K.J. 1994a. Rarity. Chapman y Hall, London. 205 pp.
Gaston, K.J. 1994b. Measuring geograhic range sizes. Ecography 17:198-205.
Gaston, K.J. 1996. Species-range-size distributions: patterns, mechanisms, and implications. Trends in Ecol. and Evol. 11:197-201.
Gaston, K.J., T.M. Blackburn y J.I. Spicer.1998a. Rapoport’s rule: time for an epitaph? Trends in Ecol. and Evol. 13:70-74.
Gaston, K.J., T.M.Blackburn y J.I.Spicer. 1998b.Reply to G.Cowlishaw and J.E. Hacker. Trendsin Ecol. and Evol. 13:242.
Gittleman, J.L. y M. Kot. 1990. Adaptation: statistics and a null model for estimating phylogenetic effects. Systematic Zoology 39:227-241.
Gittleman, J.L. y H.-K. Luh. 1992. On comparing comparative methods. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23:383-404.
Gittleman, J.L. y H.-K. Luh. 1994. Phylogeny, evolutionary models and comparative methods: a simulation study. Pp. 103-122. En: Eggleton, P. y R. Vane-Wright (eds.) Phylogenetics and Ecology. The Linnean SocietySimposium Series, Number 17. AcademicPress, London.
Graves, G.R. 1985. Elevational correlates of speciation and intraspecific geographic variation in plumage in Andean forest birds. Auk 102:556-579.
Harvey,P.H. y M.Pagel. 1991. The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology. Oxford UniversityPress, Oxford. 239 pp.
Hughes, L., E.M. Cawsey y M. Westoby. 1996. Geographic and climatic range sizes of Australian eucalypts and a test of Rapoport’s rule. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 5:128-142.
Hurlbert,S.H. 1984.Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological fiel experiments. Ecological Monographs 54:187-211.
Iverson, J.B. 1992. A revised checklist with distribution maps of the turtles of the World. Privately printed, Richmond Indiana. 363 pp.
Lawton, J. H. 1996. Patterns in ecology. Oikos 75:145-147.
Lawton,J.H.,S,. Nee, A.J. Letcher yP.H. Harvey. 1994. Animal distributions: patterns and processes.Pp. 41- 58. En: P.J. Edwards, R.M. May y N.R. Webb (eds.) Large-scale ecology and conservation biology. The British EcologicalSociety by BlackwellScience, Oxford. 375 pp.
Letcher, A.J. yP.H. Harvey. 1994.Variation in geographical range size among mammals of thePalearctic. The American Naturalist 144:30-42.
Levin, R. 1989. Biologists disagree over bold signature of nature.Science 244:527-528.
Lyons, S.K. y M.R. Willig. 1997. Latitudinal patterns of range size: methodological concerns and empirical evaluationsfor New World bats and marsupials. Oikos 79:568-580.
MacArthur, R.H. 1972. Geographical Ecology. Harper y Row, New York. 269 pp.
Martins, E.P. 1996.Phylogenies and the Comparative Method in Animal Behavior. Oxford UniversityPress, Oxford. 415 pp.
Mourelle,C. y E. Ezcurra. 1997.Rapoport’sRule: A comparative analysis betweenSouth and North American columnar cacti. The American Naturalist 150:131-142.
Patterson, B.D., V.Pacheco yS.Solari. 1996. Distributions of bats along an elevational gradientin the Andes of south-eastern Peru. Journal of Zoology, London 240:637-658.
Pagel, M.D., R.M. May y A.R. Collie. 1991. Ecological aspects of the geographical distribution and diversity of mammalian species. The American Naturalist 137:791-815.
Peters, R.H. 1991. A critique for ecology. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge. 366 pp.
Pianka, E.R. 1966. Latitudinal gradients in species diversity: a review of concepts. The American Naturalist 100:33-46.
Platnick, N.I. 1991.Patterns of biodiversity:tropical vs.temperate.Journal of Natural History 25:1083-1088.
Purvis, A., J.L. Gittleman y H.-K. Luh. 1994. Truth or consequences: accuracy of phylogenetic accuracy on two comparative methods. Journal of Theoretical Biology 167:293-300.
Purvis, A. y A. Rambaut. 1994. Comparative Analysis by Independent Contrasts (CAIC), version 2. Oxford University. 26 pp.
Purvis A., y A. Rambaut. 1995. Comparative analysis by independent contrasts(LAIC): an Apple Macintosh application for analysing comparative data.Computer Applicationsin theBiosciences 11:247-251.
Rahbek, C. 1997. The relationship among area, elevation, and regional species richness in neotropical birds. The American Naturalist 149:875-902.
Rapoport,E.H. 1975.Areografía.Estrategias geográficas de las especies.Fondo deCulturaEconómica,México. 214 pp.
Rapoport,E.H. 1982.Areography.Geographical strategies of species. The Fundación Bariloche Series. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 269 pp.
Ricklefs, R.E. y D.Schluter. 1993.Species diversity in ecological communities. University of ChicagoPress, Chicago. 414 pp.
Rohde, K. 1992. Latitudinal gradientsin species diversity: the search forthe primary cause. Oikos 65:514-527.
Rohde, K. 1996. Rapoport’s rule is a local phenomenon and cannot explain latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity Letters 3:10-13.
Rohde, K., M. Heap y D. Heap. 1993. Rapoport’s rule does not apply to marine teleosts and cannot explain latitudinal gradients in species richness. The American Naturalist 142:1-16.
Rohde, K. y M. Heap. 1996. Latitudinal ranges of teleost fish in the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Oceans. The American Naturalist 147:659-665.
Rosenzweig, M.L. 1995.Species diversity in space and time. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 436 pp.
Roy K., D.Jablonski y J.W. Valentine. 1994. EasternPacific molluscan provinces and latitudinal diversity gradient: no evidence for “Rapoport’s Rule”.Proceedings of the National Academic ofScience, USA 91:8871-8874.
Ruggiero, A. 1994. Latitudinal correlates of the sizes of mammalian geograhical rangesinSouth America. Journal of Biogeography 21:545-559.
Ruggiero, A. y J.H. Lawton. 1998. Are there latitudinal and altitudinal Rapoport effects in the geographic ranges of Andean passerines birds? Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 63:283-304.
Smith, F.D.M., R.M. May y P.H. Harvey. 1994. Geographical ranges of Australian mammals. Journal of Animal Ecology 63:441-450.
Stevens, G.C. 1989. The latitudinal gradient in geographical range: how so many species coexist in the tropics. The American Naturalist 133:240-256.
Stevens, G.C. 1992a. The elevational gradientin altitudinal range: an extension of Rapoport’s latitudinal rule to altitude. The American Naturalist 140:893-911.
Stevens, G.C. 1992b.Spilling over the competitive limits to species coexistence. Pp. 40-58. En: Elredge, N. (ed.). Systematics, Ecology and the Biodiversity Crisis. Columbia University Press, New York.
Stevens, G.C. 1996. Extending Rapoport’srule toPacific marine fishes.Journal of Biogeography 23:149- 154.
Auerbach, M. y A.Shmida.1987.Spatial scale and determinants of plant species richness. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 2:238-242.
Blackburn, T. M. y K.J. Gaston. 1996. Spatial patterns in the geographic ranges of bird species in the New World.Philosophical Transactions of the RoyalSociety, London, B351:897-912.
Blackburn, T.M. y K.J. Gaston. 1998.Some methodologicalissuesin macroecology. The American Naturalist 151:68-83.
Brown, J.H. 1995. Macroecology. The University of ChicagoPress, Chicago. 269 pp.
Brown,J. H. yB.A. Maurer.1989. Macroecology:the division offood and space among species on continents. Science 243:1145-1150.
Burt, A. 1989. Comparative methods using phylogenetically independent contrasts. Pp. 33-54. En: Harvey, P.H. y L.Partridge (eds.). Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Cheverud, J., M. Dow y W. Leutenegger. 1985. The quantitative assessment of phylogenetic restraints in comparative analyses:sexual dimorphism in body weight among primates. Evolution 36:914-933.
Colwell, R.K. y G.C. Hurtt. 1994. Nonbiological gradients in species richness and a spurius Rapoport effect. The American Naturalist 144:570-595.
Cowlishaw, G. y J.E. Hacker. 1997. Distribution, diversity, and latitude in African primates. The American Naturalist 150:505-512.
Cowlishaw, G. y J.E. Hacker. 1998. Too much latitude for Rapoport’s-rule? Trendsin Ecol. and Evol. 13:241.
Crowley, P.H. 1992. Resampling methods for computation-intensive data analysis in ecology and evolution. AnnualReview in Ecology andSystematics 23:405-447.
Diamond, J. 1986. Overview: Laboratory experiments, field experiments, and natural experiments. Pp 3-22. En: Diamond, J. y T.J. Case (eds.) Community Ecology. Harper and Row, New York.
Edwards,P.J.,R.M.May yN.R.Webb. 1994.Large-scale ecology and conservation biology.BlackwellScientific Publications, Oxford. 375 pp.
Eggleton, P. y R. Vane-Wright. 1994. Phylogenetics and ecology. The Linnean Society simposium Series, Number 17. AcademicPress, London. 376 pp.
Felsenstein,J. 1985.Phylogenies and the comparative method. The American Naturalist 125:1-15.
France,R. 1992.TheNorthAmerican latitudinal gradientin speciesrichness and geographicalrange offreshwater crayfish and amphipods. The American Naturalist 139:342-354.
Garland,T.Jr.,P.H.Harvey yA.R.Ives. 1992.Proceduresforthe analysis of comparative data using independent contrasts.Systematic Biology 41:18-32.
Gaston, K.J. 1991. How large is a species’ geographic range? Oikos 61:434-438.
Gaston, K.J. 1994a. Rarity. Chapman y Hall, London. 205 pp.
Gaston, K.J. 1994b. Measuring geograhic range sizes. Ecography 17:198-205.
Gaston, K.J. 1996. Species-range-size distributions: patterns, mechanisms, and implications. Trends in Ecol. and Evol. 11:197-201.
Gaston, K.J., T.M. Blackburn y J.I. Spicer.1998a. Rapoport’s rule: time for an epitaph? Trends in Ecol. and Evol. 13:70-74.
Gaston, K.J., T.M.Blackburn y J.I.Spicer. 1998b.Reply to G.Cowlishaw and J.E. Hacker. Trendsin Ecol. and Evol. 13:242.
Gittleman, J.L. y M. Kot. 1990. Adaptation: statistics and a null model for estimating phylogenetic effects. Systematic Zoology 39:227-241.
Gittleman, J.L. y H.-K. Luh. 1992. On comparing comparative methods. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23:383-404.
Gittleman, J.L. y H.-K. Luh. 1994. Phylogeny, evolutionary models and comparative methods: a simulation study. Pp. 103-122. En: Eggleton, P. y R. Vane-Wright (eds.) Phylogenetics and Ecology. The Linnean SocietySimposium Series, Number 17. AcademicPress, London.
Graves, G.R. 1985. Elevational correlates of speciation and intraspecific geographic variation in plumage in Andean forest birds. Auk 102:556-579.
Harvey,P.H. y M.Pagel. 1991. The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology. Oxford UniversityPress, Oxford. 239 pp.
Hughes, L., E.M. Cawsey y M. Westoby. 1996. Geographic and climatic range sizes of Australian eucalypts and a test of Rapoport’s rule. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 5:128-142.
Hurlbert,S.H. 1984.Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological fiel experiments. Ecological Monographs 54:187-211.
Iverson, J.B. 1992. A revised checklist with distribution maps of the turtles of the World. Privately printed, Richmond Indiana. 363 pp.
Lawton, J. H. 1996. Patterns in ecology. Oikos 75:145-147.
Lawton,J.H.,S,. Nee, A.J. Letcher yP.H. Harvey. 1994. Animal distributions: patterns and processes.Pp. 41- 58. En: P.J. Edwards, R.M. May y N.R. Webb (eds.) Large-scale ecology and conservation biology. The British EcologicalSociety by BlackwellScience, Oxford. 375 pp.
Letcher, A.J. yP.H. Harvey. 1994.Variation in geographical range size among mammals of thePalearctic. The American Naturalist 144:30-42.
Levin, R. 1989. Biologists disagree over bold signature of nature.Science 244:527-528.
Lyons, S.K. y M.R. Willig. 1997. Latitudinal patterns of range size: methodological concerns and empirical evaluationsfor New World bats and marsupials. Oikos 79:568-580.
MacArthur, R.H. 1972. Geographical Ecology. Harper y Row, New York. 269 pp.
Martins, E.P. 1996.Phylogenies and the Comparative Method in Animal Behavior. Oxford UniversityPress, Oxford. 415 pp.
Mourelle,C. y E. Ezcurra. 1997.Rapoport’sRule: A comparative analysis betweenSouth and North American columnar cacti. The American Naturalist 150:131-142.
Patterson, B.D., V.Pacheco yS.Solari. 1996. Distributions of bats along an elevational gradientin the Andes of south-eastern Peru. Journal of Zoology, London 240:637-658.
Pagel, M.D., R.M. May y A.R. Collie. 1991. Ecological aspects of the geographical distribution and diversity of mammalian species. The American Naturalist 137:791-815.
Peters, R.H. 1991. A critique for ecology. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge. 366 pp.
Pianka, E.R. 1966. Latitudinal gradients in species diversity: a review of concepts. The American Naturalist 100:33-46.
Platnick, N.I. 1991.Patterns of biodiversity:tropical vs.temperate.Journal of Natural History 25:1083-1088.
Purvis, A., J.L. Gittleman y H.-K. Luh. 1994. Truth or consequences: accuracy of phylogenetic accuracy on two comparative methods. Journal of Theoretical Biology 167:293-300.
Purvis, A. y A. Rambaut. 1994. Comparative Analysis by Independent Contrasts (CAIC), version 2. Oxford University. 26 pp.
Purvis A., y A. Rambaut. 1995. Comparative analysis by independent contrasts(LAIC): an Apple Macintosh application for analysing comparative data.Computer Applicationsin theBiosciences 11:247-251.
Rahbek, C. 1997. The relationship among area, elevation, and regional species richness in neotropical birds. The American Naturalist 149:875-902.
Rapoport,E.H. 1975.Areografía.Estrategias geográficas de las especies.Fondo deCulturaEconómica,México. 214 pp.
Rapoport,E.H. 1982.Areography.Geographical strategies of species. The Fundación Bariloche Series. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 269 pp.
Ricklefs, R.E. y D.Schluter. 1993.Species diversity in ecological communities. University of ChicagoPress, Chicago. 414 pp.
Rohde, K. 1992. Latitudinal gradientsin species diversity: the search forthe primary cause. Oikos 65:514-527.
Rohde, K. 1996. Rapoport’s rule is a local phenomenon and cannot explain latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity Letters 3:10-13.
Rohde, K., M. Heap y D. Heap. 1993. Rapoport’s rule does not apply to marine teleosts and cannot explain latitudinal gradients in species richness. The American Naturalist 142:1-16.
Rohde, K. y M. Heap. 1996. Latitudinal ranges of teleost fish in the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Oceans. The American Naturalist 147:659-665.
Rosenzweig, M.L. 1995.Species diversity in space and time. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 436 pp.
Roy K., D.Jablonski y J.W. Valentine. 1994. EasternPacific molluscan provinces and latitudinal diversity gradient: no evidence for “Rapoport’s Rule”.Proceedings of the National Academic ofScience, USA 91:8871-8874.
Ruggiero, A. 1994. Latitudinal correlates of the sizes of mammalian geograhical rangesinSouth America. Journal of Biogeography 21:545-559.
Ruggiero, A. y J.H. Lawton. 1998. Are there latitudinal and altitudinal Rapoport effects in the geographic ranges of Andean passerines birds? Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 63:283-304.
Smith, F.D.M., R.M. May y P.H. Harvey. 1994. Geographical ranges of Australian mammals. Journal of Animal Ecology 63:441-450.
Stevens, G.C. 1989. The latitudinal gradient in geographical range: how so many species coexist in the tropics. The American Naturalist 133:240-256.
Stevens, G.C. 1992a. The elevational gradientin altitudinal range: an extension of Rapoport’s latitudinal rule to altitude. The American Naturalist 140:893-911.
Stevens, G.C. 1992b.Spilling over the competitive limits to species coexistence. Pp. 40-58. En: Elredge, N. (ed.). Systematics, Ecology and the Biodiversity Crisis. Columbia University Press, New York.
Stevens, G.C. 1996. Extending Rapoport’srule toPacific marine fishes.Journal of Biogeography 23:149- 154.
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1999-06-01
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Ruggiero, A. (1999). Búsqueda de patrones en macroecología: la regla de Rapoport. Ecología Austral, 9(1), 045–063. Retrieved from https://ojs.ecologiaaustral.com.ar/index.php/Ecologia_Austral/article/view/1609
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